Nutritional Yeast contains variable amounts of B vitamins

Nutritional yeast is tasty and nutritious!  How nutritious is it?  Well, that depends on whether it is fortified or not, and how much information you find on the nutrition label.  

After looking at the labels of about a dozen brands, I found that nutritional yeast is consistently a good source of B2, B3, and B5, and with fortification is a great source of all major B vitamins except probably B7.

Fortified nutritional yeast contains extra B vitamins and sometimes iron. These extra nutrients are added during the processing of the product to make it more nutritional.  The vitamin content of fortified nutritional yeast depends on how much it is fortified.

For example, here are two popular brands, Braggs and Bob's Red Mill:

% Daily Value (DV) per 2 tablespoon serving. Data reported from nutritional labels.

Both brands add supplement B1, B2, B3, B6, B9, and B12, but they add different amounts.  In general, both seem to try to add more than 200% and less than 500% of the daily value.  Bragg adds more of most B vitamins, but Bob's Red Mill adds more Folate (B9).  Neither brand reports any B5 or B7, but that doesn't mean they don't have any.  According to my analysis of unfortified nutritional yeast, they probably just didn't bother to measure and/or report it.

Non Fortified or Unfortified Nutritional Yeast contains only the vitamins and minerals found in the yeast cells and has no added vitamins and minerals.  It contains variable amounts of B vitamins due to differences in yeast strain, growth substrate, growing conditions, and deactivation temperature.  

While some brands (like Anthony's) don't report any nutritional values, I was able to find 7 brands on Amazon that reported nutritional testing results for their products:

% Daily Value (DV) per 2 tablespoon serving, data reported from nutritional labels.

Note that unfortified nutritional yeast does not contain B12.  For other B vitamins, the percent daily values are generally less than 100% and usually less than 50% per 2 Tablespoon serving.  

Another way to visualize this information is by Brand:

% Daily Value (DV) per 2 tablespoon serving, data reported from nutritional labels.

Microingredients and Naturebell are the most consistent.  Sari reports the least number of vitamins.  Food Alive reports some very high levels but also some very low levels.  Revly is also missing several vitamins.  They also reported more than 400% B2 but I removed this outlier; it may have been due to testing fortified nutritional yeast by mistake.

The differences between brands are larger than the similarities.  Some brands reported zero or almost zero B1, B2, B6, and B7.  Conversely, other brands reported over 100% DVs of B1, B2, B5, and B6.  Only B3 and B5 were consistently reported with decent amounts across all brands.  

If we assume unreported values are not zero but were just not measured and look only at the vitamins reported by each brand, the mean vitamin content of unfortified nutritional yeast looks pretty good.  However, the standard deviations are as large as the reported values for 4 of the 7 B vitamins.  While some brands are good sources of B1 and B6, some were quite low for these nutrients.  It seems that unfortified nutritional yeast can only be relied on to supply more than 20% daily value per serving for B2, B3, and B5:

Note that all of these unfortified nutritional yeast brands contain B5, so it seems likely that fortified nutritional yeast brands also contain this important nutrient and simply fail to test and/or report it.  However, the percent daily value for B5 is much less than that of other B vitamins in fortified nutritional yeast.  

Four of the seven unfortified brands reported B7, so it is likely that the other unfortified and fortified brands also contain this nutrient, but fail to test and/or report it.  However, even the brands that report B7 report such a small and variable amount, nutritional yeast probably cannot be relied on as a good source of this important vitamin.

Fire Frequency in Arizona Ecosystems

 

Introduction

How likely a given area is to encounter wildfire is important for planning and wildfire mitigation. Historic or expected fire return statistics are often cited for ecosystems in Arizona, but I was curious how often wildfire actually burns across different Arizona ecosystems.

Figure 1 Example wildfire polygons around Clints Well, AZ showing overlapping fires from newer (blue, labelled), to older (shades of brown, unlabelled).  Data sources include WFIGS and GeoMAC.

Wildfire Data

I used the WFIGS Interagency Fire Perimeter GIS data, which has good data on wildfires from 2000-2023.  I limited this analysis to USFS land in Arizona.

Out of a total of 11.168 million acres of USFS land in AZ, wildfire has burned 4.8 million cumulative acres in the last 24 years.  This counts areas that burned more than once as additional acres.  It includes natural and human-ignitions, as well as wildfire managed for resource benefit.  

Figure 2 Example WFIGS Interagency Fire Perimeters in AZ

Figure 3 Wildfire acreage over time in AZ.  2011 was the Wallow fire.

Vegetation Types

To evaluate wildfire probabilities in Arizona ecosystems, I looked at the 15 most common ecosystem types, as defined by the USFS Ecosystem Response Unit (ERU) vegetation type GIS layer.  Together, these 15 ecosystems account for 9.1 million out of the 11.1 million acres of USFS land in Arizona.

Figure 6 Example ERU polygons showing aspen (pink) and mixed conifer around the San Franscisco Peaks, AZ.

To calculate the percent of each ERU burned per year, I divided total acres burned by total acres of ERU and divided that by 24 years.   Spruce-Fire forest and Mixed Conifer is most likely to burn, whereas Mixed Conifer with Aspen is least likely.  Ponderosa pine ecosystems rank in the middle, at around 3% chance. 

This analysis counts acres more than once if they burned more than once in the 24 year time period.  For example, Spruce Fir Forest ERU has more acres of wildfire than there are total acres of ERU.  This does not mean that every acre burned, but some acres burned more than once.   

ERU	ERU Acres	Wildfire Acres	% burned in 24 years	% burned per year
Ponderosa Pine Forest	1,966,603	1,431,424	72.79%	3.03%
PJ Woodland	1,175,545	208,685	17.75%	0.74%
PJ Evergreen Shrub	1,136,221	311,254	27.39%	1.14%
Mojave-Sonoran Desert Scrub	779,939	386,363	49.54%	2.06%
Semi-Desert Grassland	730,015	300,189	41.12%	1.71%
Interior Chaparral	713,754	533,678	74.77%	3.12%
Juniper Grass	539,830	299,074	55.40%	2.31%
Colorado Plateau / Great Basin Grassland	367,114	41,812	11.39%	0.47%
Ponderosa Pine – Evergreen Oak	362,838	238,365	65.69%	2.74%
Madrean Pinyon-Oak Woodland	354,836	92,160	25.97%	1.08%
Mixed Conifer - Frequent Fire	349,006	304,104	87.13%	3.63%
Mixed Conifer w/ Aspen	242,169	9,782	4.04%	0.17%
Montane / Subalpine Grassland	157,163	92,461	58.83%	2.45%
Spruce-Fir Forest	112,827	124,593	110.43%	4.60%
PJ Grass	96,016	8,995	9.37%	0.39%
Madrean Encinal Woodland	93,939	23,092	24.58%	1.02%

Figure 7 ERU acres, wildfire acres, percent burned in 24 years, and percent burned per year.  Table ranked from most to least common ERU.

Wildfire Return Interval

Fire return interval is the average length of time until fire returns at a given point in the landscape.  The chance that any given acre burns depends on a large number of complex factors, including when it last burned, the topography, fuel reduction treatments, proximity to WUI and/or human use.  Still, percent burned per year in the table above (Wildfire/Year, W) can be used to calculate expected return intervals of fire, all else being equal.

Calculations – Fire per Year

To calculate expected return intervals, first calculate the probability (P) that fire will not occur in a given span of time (X).

P = (1-W)^X

For example, for Ponderosa Pine Forest over 10 years:

P = (1-0.0303)^10

P = (0.9697)^10

P = 73.5% chance that fire will not occur, or 26.5% chance that fire will occur in 10 years.

20 years:

(0.9697)^20=54% chance that fire will not occur, or 46% chance that fire will occur.

 

Figure 8 Cumulative probability of wildfire in AZ Ponderosa Pine ERU

Calculations – Fire Return Interval

If we determine a Probability, but need to know the span of time until fire occurs, we can solve for X:

P = (1-W)^X

P = log x / log (1-W)

For example, if we determine "expected return interval" to be the length of time necessary for 50% chance of fire:

 0.5  = (0.9697)^X

X = log (0.5) / log (0.9697)

X = 22 years until there is a 50% chance of fire in Ponderosa Pine Forest.

However, if we interpret "expected return interval" to be the length of time necessary for 90% chance of fire:

0.1  = (0.9697)^x

X = log (0.1) / log (0.9697)

X = 75 years until there is a 90% chance of fire in Ponderosa Pine Forest.

Over time, the probability approaches, but never actually reaches, 100% that a wildfire will occur:

Figure 9 Cumulative Probability of Fire in Ponderosa Pine ERU

Conclusion

The length of time until fire returns at a given point in the landscape depends on how certain we want to be of the chance of fire.  If we want to be very certain (90% probability), then we would expect to wait 75 years on average.  If we are OK taking the flip of a coin (50% probability), than we would expect fire to return at any given point in 22 years.  If we are risk adverse, and can only tolerate a 10% chance of fire visiting our chosen point, we should expect fire every 3.5 years, on average.